Sundown towns maryland

The topic this time: "Sundown Towns." Beauchamp (2005's " The Untold Story of Emmett Louis Till ") visits several places during the hour to find out if sundown towns -- where blacks were excluded ...

Of the 1,299 municipal governments that existed at the time of the 2007 census, appromixately 9.3% of the entire state consists of confirmed sundown towns, approximately 15.4% makes up the number of unconfirmed sundown towns, and if we are to add both numbers together to garner a possible maximum percentage of historically sundown towns within ...“Sundown towns” were all too real—and not just in the South. By Lawrence Ware. Aug 19, 2020 2:20 PM. ... During the same period, deeds in Chevy Chase, Maryland, ...Between the 1890s and the 1940s, Sundown Towns became a popular trend in Northern states. In his book, Loewen profiles three Indiana towns; Elwood, Huntington and Martinsville. John Aden is the Executive Director of the African American Historical Society Museum in Fort Wayne. He remembers Martinsville, Indiana as an unfriendly place.The Legacy Of Sundown Towns Affects Black Travelers. Ade Onibada BuzzFeed News July 27, 2021. (AP Photo/Wong Maye-E) When 30-year-old hiker Marco …The explosive story of racial exclusion in the north, from the American Book Award-winning author of Lies My Teacher Told Me As American as apple pie: Most suburbs in the United States were originally sundown towns. As part of the deepening racism that swept through the United States after 1890, town after town outside the traditional South …Illinois Sundown Towns. Central IL has many sundown towns. Most of these are confirmed. Some are drawing white flight from Peoria, Champaign/Urbana, Decatur, etc. This site was created by Matt Cheney, revised by OddBird, copyrighted by James W. Loewen and heirs (Nick Loewen), and is maintained by Phil Huckelberry and Stephen Berrey.Of the 1,299 municipal governments that existed at the time of the 2007 census, appromixately 9.3% of the entire state consists of confirmed sundown towns, approximately 15.4% makes up the number of unconfirmed sundown towns, and if we are to add both numbers together to garner a possible maximum percentage of historically sundown towns within ...

Sundown towns have been around since 1890 and between then and 1930 (even through the 1950s) they began sprawling throughout the west and Midwest. According to the book, Sundown Towns by James ...SPRINGFIELD, Ill. (WICS) — Black History Month is a time to celebrate the accomplishments and contributions that black Americans have made in our country, but some parts of the fight for equality can be uncomfortable to remember. In a special report, we are taking a closer look at the formation of what were known as sundown towns. Historians say that a sundown town is a town or city that ...A common misconception about sundown towns is exclusivity to the Deep South. Popular media has reinforced the unrealistic narrative of a majority of or only sundown towns being located in the plantation South. But in reality, regions like the Midwest or North actually outnumber the South in all-white municipalities. Racial Violence and Forced ...Sundown Towns. Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of …Throughout the 1900s, thousands of cities across America banned Black people from becoming residents or even being within city limits after dark. These cities were called "sundown towns" and several could be found throughout the state of Colorado. "We don't necessarily have a complete record of all the sundown towns in Colorado.Sundown towns were municipalities that prevented African-Americans or other minorities from lingering after dark. James Loewen, a sociologist who taught at the University of Vermont, discovered thousands of sundown towns throughout the United States, including New England. Beginning in the 1890s, New England's small towns and rural ...According to Wikipedia, Sundown towns, also known as sunset towns, gray towns, or sundowner towns, are all-white cities or neighborhoods in the United States that practice a form of racial segregation.The term came from signs posted that "colored people" had to leave town by sundown. If you think that these types of towns were relegated to the south, you would be wrong.Jul 25, 2022 8:52 pm · Updated Jul 25, 2022 8:52 pm. The existence of sundown towns has been recirculating on Black Twitter. Sundown towns are all white cities, towns or neighborhoods that still practice racial segregation by excluding non-white people, usually through extreme violence or intimidation. They were given the name "sundown ...

Sundown towns were not just in the Southern parts of the United States. Contrary to what many Northerners believe, these towns hostile to the presence of Black people were all over the country. In ...Sundown Town in the Past? Probable Was there an ordinance? Don't Know Sign? Don't Know Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Probably Not, Although Still Very Few Black People Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910 ...Sundown towns were real across the U.S. from 1890 to the years following Jim Crow. They were all-white communities or counties that intentionally excluded Black people and other minorities through ...Historical Database of Sundown Towns. Welcome to the world’s only registry of sundown towns. Just click on a state to see an alphabetical list of all the sundown towns we know about, think may been sundown towns, and have managed to get up onto the site.

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Throughout the 1900s, thousands of cities across America banned Black people from becoming residents or even being within city limits after dark. These cities were called "sundown towns" and several could be found throughout the state of Colorado. "We don't necessarily have a complete record of all the sundown towns in Colorado.Sundown towns in Maryland‎ (4 P) Sundown towns in Michigan‎ (4 P) ... Sundown towns in New Jersey‎ (2 P) Sundown towns in New York (state)‎ (4 P) Sundown towns in North Carolina‎ (5 P) O. Sundown towns in Ohio‎ (8 P) Sundown towns in Oklahoma‎ (14 P) Sundown towns in Oregon‎ (4 P) T.Soon, there will be as many adults over 65 as there are children under 18. Even if we can outsource their care to artificial intelligence, should we? Among the symptoms of dementia...Sundown Towns combines personal narrative, history, and analysis to create a readable picture of this previously unknown American institution all written with Loewen's trademark honesty and thoroughness. ... (Anne Bruder) A historical expert on architecture and transportation gives an online presentation about the sites in Maryland that were ...Many have heard of the term 'sundown town' and quite don't understand the meaning of what was behind it. The idea and term is rooted in white supremacy from signs that posted all black people had to leave a town before sundown. Blacks were allowed to enter these towns to work, serve and handle certain errands while the sun was shining ...Loewen (emeritus, sociology, U. of Vermont) exposes the history and persistence of "sundown towns," so-named for the signs often found at their corporate limits warning African Americans and other minorities not to be found in the town after dusk. He historically situates the rise of the sundown town movement in the years following the Civil War; describes the mechanisms of violence, threats ...

Shortly after WWII, a realtor suggested that all of the San Francisco Peninsula except the city itself should be sundown towns, off limits to Asian and African Americans. Many towns already were, but the movement didn’t succeed. Much more work needs doing to confirm or disconfirm these towns. Some of these kept out Asians first, … California Sundown Towns (North to South) Read More »Sundown Towns The best introduction to sundown towns - cities, towns, counties, even whole subregions that for decades were all-white on purpose - is of course the book Sundown Towns. It is also available audibly. From Maine to California, thousands of communities kept out African Americans (or sometimes Chinese Americans, Jewish Americans, etc.) by force, … Sundown Towns Read More »Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Possible Was there an ordinance? Don't Know Sign? Don't Know Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Surely Not Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910: 1920: 1930: 1940: 1263 ...Sundown towns are all-white communities that intentionally exclude African Americans or other minorities from residing within their boundaries by forced expulsion, violent threats, or economic coercion. Multiple sundown towns and counties appeared in Georgia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Creation and …Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Probable Was there an ordinance? Perhaps, Some Oral Evidence Sign? Perhaps, Some Oral Evidence ... Tilgham Island had an anti-black curfew, and according to one Maryland resident, posted a sundown sign until the 1970s. Tell Us More About This Town.De jure school segregation also held in Maryland, southern Ohio, southern Indiana, southern Illinois, most of Kansas, New Mexico, most of Arizona, and some other parts of the United States. ... The study of sundown towns across the nation can lead classes into exploration of the often unexamined role of race in their daily lives. It likewise ...Key %u2014 this in a town whose population had been one-third black at the turn of the century. It was black labor that had laid the tracks through the swamp into Cedar Key, and many of those men had chosen to stay. At the turn of the century, there had been a black shcool in Cedar Key. Black churches, too. And now there was nothing."Ohio Sundown Towns. This site was created by Matt Cheney, revised by OddBird, copyrighted by James W. Loewen and heirs (Nick Loewen), and is maintained by Phil Huckelberry and Stephen Berrey. Hosted by Tougaloo College, Tougaloo, MS, 39174 and facilitated by Pantheon.Location: Illinois. Location: Illinois. [This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * 'd. They are not suspected sundown towns but are ...Not all towns are thoroughly confirmed. Look over the information provided and come to your own conclusion. And of course, a town may have been sundown once, but now is not. Ferguson, MO, was a sundown town between 1940 and 1960. By 2014, when racial conflict famously erupted there, it was 67% black, so it was certainly no longer a sundown town.

Almost all the towns that Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration set up during the Depression were sundown towns, including Greenbelt, Md.; Greenhills, Ohio; Hanford, Wash.; and others. Several ...

The award-winning look at an ugly aspect of American racism by the bestselling author of Lies My Teacher Told Me, reissued with a new preface by the author. In this groundbreaking work, sociologist James W. Loewen, author of the classic bestseller Lies My Teacher Told Me, brings to light decades of hidden racial exclusion in America.This page will help you find a list of surrounding towns near Sundown Manor, villages, cities nearby or close to the suburbs of Sundown Manor within a 25 mile distance (40.23 km) of Sundown Manor (Maryland) to the north, south, east, or west of Sundown Manor; generally within a 30 minute to one hour commute or drive.Silver Spring, Maryland developed during the early twentieth century as a sundown suburb: an area covering more than ten square miles where racial restrictive deed covenants prevented African Americans from owning or renting homes. ... Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism (New York: New Press : Distributed in …A historic Black church brings a reckoning in a rural Maryland community. In 2019, Smith won a seat on Oakland Town Council by two votes. Only 149 people cast votes in that race. She decided not ...A sundown town is a community that for decades kept non-whites from living in it and was thus “all-white” on purpose. Sundown towns are rare in the South but common in the rest of the country. Learn why sundown cities, towns, suburbs, and neighborhoods developed–and how they continue to shape the lives and relationships of black and white Americans today.Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Possible Was there an ordinance? Sign? Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Surely Not Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910: 1920: 1930: 1940: 1950: 1009: 0: 1960: 1442: 0:A new series investigates the legacy of so-called sundown towns. Minden and neighboring Gardnerville outside of Carson City were two of those towns, where members of the local Washoe tribe had to ...live in the town, but ‘in outlying farms located on Greenbelt property.’ “W. H. Form, who researched Greenbelt and its residents in the 1940s, observed the black workers perform janitorial duties and the like in the town. Unlike white workers with similar jobs, the blacks were not greeted by the townsfolk, received very littleThe Delaware River begins in the state of New York in the town of Jefferson. The Delaware River spans over 330 miles in length through the states of New Jersey, New York, Maryland,...

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Middle Tennessee also had a scattering of sundown towns, including Waynesboro for some time. But West Tennessee is more Deep South and has no sundown towns to my knowledge. "Shortly after the bloody race riot in Springfield, Illinois, in August 1908, racial violence flared openly in the TN coal fields along the KY border. White mountaineers ...Sundown towns are almost everywhere. A sundown town is any organized jurisdiction1 that for decades kept African Americans or other groups from living in it and was thus "all-white" on purpose. There is a reason for the quotation marks around "all-white": requiring towns to be literally all white in the census — noCalculations of sunrise and sunset in Maryland City - Maryland - USA for April 2024. Generic astronomy calculator to calculate times for sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset for many cities, with daylight saving time and time zones taken in account.ullstein bild/Getty Images The Chicago suburb of Cicero was one of the most infamous sundown towns to ever exist in Illinois. After just one Black family moved into an apartment there in 1951, a mob of 4,000 white people attacked the entire building. For much of the 20th century, thousands of all-white American towns forbade Black people from ...According to Dr. Lancaster, some 100 towns in Arkansas are suspected to have been sundown towns, most of them located in the northern and western sections of the state. Notes. This material may be protected by copyright law (Title 17 U.S. Code). Addeddate 2019-04-28 13:31:42"I think for the state of pennsylvania, york county should be added to the list of sundown town/counties. The county had alot of race riots in the past…Most of the Black residents of York county are from Baltimore, Maryland or somewhere in Maryland and recently just moved in due to cheap affordable homes.But it was also the home of U.S. Sen. Everett Dirksen, whose support helped ensure the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Other spots in Illinois with reputations as sundown towns or of racial ...Map: Sundown Towns of Metro Detroit. This map comes from the only database of Sundown Towns created at the History and Social Justice project at Tougaloo College in MIssissippi. "A sundown town is not just a place where something racist happened. It is an entire community (or even county) that for decades was 'all white' on purpose.".Ocean City, Maryland is a popular vacation destination for beach lovers and families alike. With its miles of sandy beaches, boardwalk attractions, and amusement parks, it’s easy t...Filmmaker Keith Beauchamp joins Tamron Hall to discuss his new documentary "The Injustice Files: Sundown Town," which looks at the history of towns that prohibited or discouraged African-Americans ...Sundown Towns. "The Thing You Didn't Know What It Was". Insley Smullen. To fulfill all requirements for CSI 100 Final Project. To select a subject of interest to me that is versatile enough to be divided among the requirements for said project. Slideshow 2508820 by akira ….

Sundown Town in the Past? Possible Was there an ordinance? Don't Know Sign? Don't Know Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Probably Not, Although Still Very Few Black People Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910 ... Sundown towns, also known as sunset towns, gray towns, or sundowner towns, are all- white municipalities or neighborhoods in the United States and Canada that were most prevalent before the mid-20th century, which practiced a form of racial segregation by excluding non-whites via some combination of discriminatory local laws, intimidation or ... Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Surely Was there an ordinance? Yes, Written Evidence Sign? Don't Know Year of Greatest Interest 1936 Still Sundown? Probably Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910: 1920: 1930 ...sundown town, in U.S. history, a town that excluded nonwhite people—most frequently African Americans—from remaining in town after sunset. More generally, sundown town is used to describe a place where the resident population was through deliberate action made to be overwhelmingly composed of white people. The methods for enforcing such racial segregation ranged from episodes of collective ...S. Southern Pines, North Carolina. Categories: African-American history of North Carolina. History of racism in North Carolina. Sundown towns in the United States by state. White American culture in North Carolina.3.8 miles from resort. Explore the sandy beaches, maritime forests, salt marshes, and coastal bays of beautiful Assateague Island. Spend the day swimming and surfing in the Atlantic Ocean or try crabbing, clamming, and surf fishing along the beach and shore. Watch the famous wild ponies that roam the island or join the ranger-guided programs.The explosive story of racial exclusion in the north, from the American Book Award-winning author of Lies My Teacher Told Me As American as apple pie: Most suburbs in the United States were originally sundown towns. As part of the deepening racism that swept through the United States after 1890, town after town outside the traditional South became intentionally all-white, evicting their black ...Sundown Manor is situated in the region Maryland in America! Search the name of a city: , , , , Here you will find the location of Sundown Manor on a map. To see how it currently looks like outside, below are some pictures of the area from online web cameras. You can also find the distance to the main cities in the region and to cities in the ...Laytonsville, Maryland. / 39.21139°N 77.14000°W / 39.21139; -77.14000. Laytonsville is a town in Montgomery County, Maryland, United States. The population was 572 at the 2020 census, [3] up from 353 in 2010. Laytonsville was incorporated in 1892. Sundown towns maryland, But in general, sundown towns existed by reputation. Blacks knew they were places to avoid after dark. Charles Jones is a 62-year-old African-American man who lives in Beaumont., April 29, 2024. Her dad is a Baltimore TV legend. She’s returning to Maryland on her own merits. Author Emily Barth Isler, daughter of former local broadcasting legend Andy Barth, comes home with a new book and life-saving message about kids and guns. By Leslie Gray Streeter ., Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Probable Was there an ordinance? Sign? Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Census Information. The available census data from 1860 to the present; Total White Black Asian Native Hispanic Other BHshld; 1860: 1870: 1880: 1890: 1900: 1910: 1920: 1930: 1940: 1950: 1960: 1970: 1980: 1990: 2000: …, Welcome to the world’s only registry of sundown towns. Just click on a state to see an alphabetical list of all the sundown towns we know about, think may been sundown towns, and have managed to get up onto the …, Pages in category "Sundown towns in Maryland" ... Belmont (Chevy Chase, Maryland Subdivision) C. Chevy Chase, Maryland; S. Silver Spring, Maryland; W. Washington Grove, Maryland This page was last edited on 8 July 2022, at 19:02 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative ..., Sundown Towns. Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. The name derives from the posted and verbal warnings issued to Blacks that although they might be allowed to work …, It WAS a Sundown town based on the criteria listed. It was indeed all White for a while. In fact, for short period between 1949 and 1950 George H. W. Bush and Lil W lived in Compton. Compton was also very rural at this time. Horses and cattle were owned by a lot of people in Compton., Between the 1890s and the 1940s, Sundown Towns became a popular trend in Northern states. In his book, Loewen profiles three Indiana towns; Elwood, Huntington and Martinsville. John Aden is the Executive Director of the African American Historical Society Museum in Fort Wayne. He remembers Martinsville, Indiana as an unfriendly place., Sundown Towns combines personal narrative, history, and analysis to create a readable picture of this previously unknown American institution all written with Loewen's trademark honesty and thoroughness. ... (Anne Bruder) A historical expert on architecture and transportation gives an online presentation about the sites in Maryland that were ..., Welcome to the DETOUR EXPERIENCE — We’re your trusted travel guide that re-introduces you to the world through a uniquely multicultural storytelling lens. DETOUR brings together journalists, writers, historians, photographers, illustrators, and filmmakers to transport us to places near and far enriched by our music, food, art, dance, businesses, and rich history., Location: Wisconsin. Location: Wisconsin. [This list is a work in progress. You can assess the information provided to form your own determination as to whether the town is a confirmed sundown town. If you have additional information, pro or con, please email it to us. Also note: some towns are * 'd. They are not suspected sundown towns but ..., What 'sundown towns,' discriminatory all-white neighborhoods, represent for Black drivers Published December 22, 2021 at 10:40 AM MST Facebook; Twitter; LinkedIn; Email; Flipboard;, The Negro Motorist Green Book, popularly known as the Green Book, was a travel guide intended to help African American motorists avoid social obstacles prevalent during the period of racial segregation, commonly referred to as Jim Crow.. The Green Book listed businesses that would accept African American customers. The book was the …, Forgotten Story of America's Whites-Only Towns. James Loewen documents the rise of 'sundown towns' and their enduring legacy. Dan Carter 1/21/2008. Advertisement. In the 1980s my wife, a social worker, visited a nursing home on Sand Mountain, a large mountainous plateau in north Georgia that stretches westward into northeastern Alabama., I can confirm that Greenbelt and Mt. Rainer were both sundown towns. Before the 60s/70s PG county Md didn't really allow many African Americans or other people of color to move within the county. Mt. Rainer used to have a lot of KKK activity. I'm in TX and Vidor is one of the most racist towns ever., Maryland is renowned for its succulent crab cakes, a culinary delight that captures the essence of the Chesapeake Bay. With an abundance of fresh blue crabs caught daily, it’s no w..., Ocean City, Maryland is a popular vacation spot for beachgoers and families alike. With miles of pristine beaches, an iconic boardwalk, and plenty of attractions, it’s no wonder wh..., Perhaps it was a sundown town historically. If so its a deep dark secret. I did a fair amount of [Underground Railroad] research and Ohio and Erie Canal and found nothing of the sort. The most consistent racism I found for Cuyahoga Falls was anti-Irish Catholic labor stuff. It was okay for the Irish to dig canals and later build railroads but ..., Sundown Towns. "The Thing You Didn't Know What It Was". Insley Smullen. To fulfill all requirements for CSI 100 Final Project. To select a subject of interest to me that is versatile enough to be divided among the requirements for said project. Slideshow 2508820 by akira, Inside The Little-Known History Of America’s Sundown Towns — Which Banned Black People After Dark. By Bernadette Giacomazzo | Edited By Jaclyn Anglis. …, Some sundown towns similarly kept out Jews, Chinese, Mexicans, Native Americans, or other groups. Independent sundown towns range from tiny hamlets such as De Land, Illinois (population 500), to substantial cities such as Appleton, Wisconsin (57,000 in 1970). Sometimes entire counties went sundown, usually when their county seat did., Since 2021, ORP has supported the growth of a local truth and reconciliation coalition in Grants Pass, OR. Their goal is to help Grants Pass develop a reputation for being welcoming to all. The Sunrise Project: History Sundown towns were communities that purposefully excluded African Americans and other racial minorities from living in, or ..., Chevy Chase is actually four towns, but they are generally discussed as one town. “We had African Americans look at our house, and the uproar on our block was unbelievable,” says a former resident who sold her house in the 1960s. “Beginning in the 1920s, some deeds included restrictive covenants prohibiting sale or lease to “any, The Midwest had 644 Sundown towns, the South had 254, the West had 144, and the Northeast had 55. Few counties had more than 2 Sundown towns, while the Midwest had the highest number of counties with 10 or more Sundown towns. The mediation effects of city-level diversity on Sundown town status and COVID-19 local risk index are presented in ..., Maryland. Basic Information Type of Place Independent City or Town Metro Area Politics c. 1860? Don't Know Unions, Organized Labor? Don't Know Sundown Town Status Sundown Town in the Past? Possible Was there an ordinance? Don't Know Sign? Don't Know Year of Greatest Interest Still Sundown? Don't Know Census Information. The available ..., Sundown Towns and Counties: Racial Exclusion in the South James W. Loewen; Southern Cultures; The University of North Carolina Press ... Maryland, USA 21218 +1 (410) 516-6989 [email protected] ©2024 Project MUSE. Produced by Johns Hopkins University Press in collaboration with The Sheridan Libraries., Rising Sun is a town in Cecil County, Maryland, United States. The population was 2,781 at the 2010 census. History ... In the town, the population was spread out, with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.0% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 16.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.8% who were 65 years of age or older. ..., Maryland is renowned for its succulent crab cakes, a culinary delight that captures the essence of the Chesapeake Bay. With an abundance of fresh blue crabs caught daily, it’s no w..., Sundown Towns. Sundown Towns are all-white communities, neighborhoods, or counties that exclude Blacks and other minorities through the use of discriminatory laws, harassment, and threats or use of violence. The name derives from the posted and verbal warnings issued to Blacks that although they might be allowed to work …, Sundown towns in the United States. This category lists populated places in the United States that at any point practiced a form of segregation known as a sundown town. Some of these places may be counties or neighborhoods rather than towns., Sundown Manor Populated Place Profile with maps, schools, hospitals, airports, real estate MLS listings and local jobs. Location: Frederick County, MD, FID: 1712429 ..., Jul 25, 2022 8:52 pm · Updated Jul 25, 2022 8:52 pm. The existence of sundown towns has been recirculating on Black Twitter. Sundown towns are all white cities, towns or neighborhoods that still practice racial segregation by excluding non-white people, usually through extreme violence or intimidation. They were given the name "sundown ..., Summary: Loewen (emeritus, sociology, U. of Vermont) exposes the history and persistence of "sundown towns," so-named for the signs often found at their corporate limits warning African Americans and other minorities not to be found in the town after dusk. He historically situates the rise of the sundown town movement in the years following the Civil War; describes the mechanisms of violence ...